Uncategorized

CITATIONS MASTER

1) Luskin, Casey “Molecular Machines in the Cell” Discovery Institute, June, 2010; https://www.discovery.org/a/14791/

2) Biology for Majors “Comparing Biological Macromolecules”; https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-wmopen-biology1/chapter/comparing-biological-macromolecules/

3) Carlson, Emily, “For Proteins, Form Shapes Function” NIH Mar, 2011; https://www.nigms.nih.gov/education/Inside-Life-Science/Pages/for-proteins-form-shapes-function.aspx#:~:text=Every%20protein%20has%20a%20shape,the%20molecule%20they%20act%20upon.

4) “Scientists determine 3D structure of proteins in living cells for the first time” PHYS.ORG, MARCH, 2009; https://phys.org/news/2009-03-scientists-3d-proteins-cells.html

5) What is Epigenetics? CDC; https://www.cdc.gov/genomics/disease/epigenetics.htm#:~:text=Epigenetics%20is%20the%20study%20of,body%20reads%20a%20DNA%20sequence.

6) “Non Coding DNA” NIH; https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Non-Coding-DNA#:~:text=Non%2Dcoding%20DNA%20corresponds%20to,DNA%20have%20no%20known%20function.

7) What is noncoding DNA? https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/understanding/basics/noncodingdna/ 

8) “What is a gene?” Medline Plus https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/understanding/basics/gene/

9) “What is epigenetics?” CDC https://www.cdc.gov/genomics/disease/epigenetics.htm#:~:text=Epigenetics%20is%20the%20study%20of,body%20reads%20a%20DNA%20sequence.

10) “Base Pair” NIH: National Cancer Institute; https://www.cancer.gov/publications/dictionaries/cancer-terms/def/base-pair

11) “Genome” National Genome Human Research Institute, NIH; https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Codon#:~:text=A%20codon%20is%20a%20DNA,are%20used%20as%20stop%20signals.

12) Oyama M, Itagaki C, Hata H, Suzuki Y, Izumi T, Natsume T, Isobe T, Sugano S. “Analysis of small human proteins reveals the translation of upstream open reading frames of mRNAs” Genome Res. 2004 Oct;14(10B):2048-52. doi: 10.1101/gr.2384604. PMID: 15489325; PMCID: PMC528919. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC528919/

13) Krüger M, Linke WA. The giant protein titin: a regulatory node that integrates myocyte signaling pathways. J Biol Chem. 2011 Mar 25;286(12):9905-12. doi: 10.1074/jbc.R110.173260. Epub 2011 Jan 21. PMID: 21257761; PMCID: PMC3060543; https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3060543/#:~:text=The%20human%20titin%20gene%20comprises,protein%20in%20the%20human%20body.

14) Michael B. Miller, Michael B. Ph.D., Professor, Division of Epidemiology and Community Health and Institute of Human Genetics, University of Minnesota; http://bio4.us/biotrends/human_genome_height.html

15) Saladin, Ken Professor of Biology, Emeritus, Michigan State University, Retired, Posted on Quora.

16) Brooks, John “How Many Pages Does It Take to Print Out Someone’s Genetic Code?” May, 2016; https://www.kqed.org/futureofyou/154916/how-many-pages-does-it-take-to-print-someones-genetic-code-video#:~:text=%22Not%20the%20man%20in%20his,or%20262%2C000%20densely%20printed%20pages.

17) “Histone” May, 2023 NIH, National Human Genome Research Institute; https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/histone

18)  Bernhardt, H.S. The RNA world hypothesis: the worst theory of the early evolution of life (except for all the others)a. Biol Direct 7, 23 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1186/1745-6150-7-23; https://biologydirect.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1745-6150-7-23#citeas

19) DNA Replication May, 2023 NIH, National Human Genome Research Institute; https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/DNA-Replication#:~:text=DNA%20replication%20is%20the%20process,with%20its%20own%20complete%20genome.

20) Nature, Scitable “Cells Can Replicate Their DNA Precisely” https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/cells-can-replicate-their-dna-precisely-6524830/

21)  BC Campus, Concepts of Biology 9.2 DNA Replication; https://opentextbc.ca/biology/chapter/9-2-dna-replication/

22) Need source for 1 in 10^11 net rate of mutation

23) Paul, Eli, “A balancing act: The consequences of errors in DNA repair and replication” NU SCI Magazine of Northeast University, Biology, Nov, 2021; https://nuscimagazine.com/a-balancing-act-the-consequences-of-errors-in-dna-repair-and-replication/

24) National Geographic, Educational encyclodedic entry, Aug, 2022; https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/natural-selection/

25) Merriam-Webster Dictionary; https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/somatic 

26) NIH, National Human Genome Research Institute, “Germline,” May, 2023; https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/germ-line#:~:text=Germ%20line%20refers%20to%20the,which%20are%20called%20somatic%20cells.

27) Basic Bilogy, https://basicbiology.net/micro/genetics/chromosomes

28) “How are genes passed on?” NIH National Library of Medicine Apr, 2019, parenthesis is mine;  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK541156/

29) Basic Biology https://basicbiology.net/micro/genetics/genetic-inheritance#:~:text=Genetic%20inheritance%20occurs%20due%20to%20genetic%20material%2C%20in,the%20DNA%20passed%20down%20from%20the%20parent%20generation.

30) Cleveland Clinic, “What are the three stages of fetal development called?”; https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/articles/7247-fetal-development-stages-of-growth#:~:text=There%20are%20three%20stages%20of,%3A%20germinal%2C%20embryonic%20and%20fetal.

31) Wagner, Andreas “Arrival of the Fittest” Oct, 2015 ISBN 9781617230219, parenthesis and italics are mine; https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/314334/arrival-of-the-fittest-by-andreas-wagner/

32) Behe, Michael, “Experimental Evolution, Loss-of-Function Mutations, and the First Rule of Adaptive Evolution,” Dec, 2010 The quarterly review of biolology, Volume 85, Number 4; https://www.discovery.org/a/experimental-evolution-loss-of-function-mutations-and-the-first-rule-of-adaptive-evolution/

33) McGaugh, S., Gross, J., Aken, B. et al. The cavefish genome reveals candidate genes for eye loss. Nat Commun 5, 5307 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms6307

34) What You Need to Know About 5 Most Common Genetic Disorders” Regis College, Nov, 2021; https://online.regiscollege.edu/blog/information-5-common-genetic-disorders/

35) Oxford Dictionary On-Line “Mutation”; https://www.google.com/search?q=define+mutation&rlz=1C1CHBF_enUS974US978&oq=define+mutation&gs_lcrp=EgZjaHJvbWUyBggAEEUYOTIHCAEQABiABDIHCAIQABiABDIHCAMQABiABDIHCAQQABiABDIHCAUQABiABDIHCAYQABiABDIHCAcQABiABDIHCAgQABiABDIHCAkQABiABNIBCDY4NzJqMWo0qAIAsAIA&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8

36) “Mutation” National Cancer Institute; https://www.cancer.gov/publications/dictionaries/cancer-terms/def/mutation

37) Tadi, Prasanna & Miles, Brielle, “Genetics, Somatic Mutation” National Library of Medicine, Apr, 2022; https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557896/

38) Li, C., Williams, S.M. Human Somatic Variation: It’s Not Just for Cancer Anymore. Curr Genet Med Rep 1, 212–218 (Nov, 2013).

39) “Somatic & Germline Mutations” Cleveland Clinic; https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/body/23067-somatic–germline-mutations

40) Wojcik MH, Schwartz TS, Thiele KE, Paterson H, Stadelmaier R, Mullen TE, VanNoy GE, Genetti CA, Madden JA, Gubbels CS, Yu TW, Tan WH, Agrawal PB. Infant mortality: the contribution of genetic disorders. J Perinatol. 2019 Dec;39(12):1611-1619. doi: 10.1038/s41372-019-0451-5. Epub 2019 Aug 8. PMID: 31395954; PMCID: PMC6879816.; https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6879816/

41) Davis, Deborah, “Can we really extract ancient DNA from dinosaurs?” Oct 2021; https://www.evolutionisamyth.com/fossils/fossil-evidence-can-not-substantiate-supposed-genetic-similarities/

42) Eight sources listed.  Germline mutations can cause tumors: https://www.nature.com/articles/gim2014147/tables/1 ; cancer (National Comprehensive Cancer Network, 2013); https://www.nature.com/articles/gim2014147/tables/2 List of genetic disorders (Wikipedia) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_genetic_disorders; can cause Autism: https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/condition/autism-spectrum-disorder/#:~:text=Some%20of%20the%20other%20genes%2Cin%20only%20a%20single%20gene ; Congenital defects: https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Birth-Defect; Birth defects: https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/birth-defects-causes-and-statistics-863/  Deformities such as cystic fibrosis or sickle cell disease: https://www.marchofdimes.org/pregnancy/genetic-and-chromosomal-conditions.aspx

43) Biology online;  https://www.biologyonline.com/dictionary/neutral-theory-of-molecular-evolution

44) Tenaillon, Oliver “The Impact of Neutral Mutations on Genome Evolvability” ScienceDirect, May, 2020, volume 30, Issue 10 Pages 527-534; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2020.03.056

45) Biology online. https://www.biologyonline.com/dictionary/neutral-mutation

46) “Point Mutation” NIH, Library of Medicine; https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Point-Mutation

47)  “4 beneficial evolutionary mutations that humans are undergoing right now,” Surprising Science, Oct, 2011; https://bigthink.com/surprising-science/evolution-is-still-happening-beneficial-mutations-in-humans/

48) “Sickle Cell Anemia” Mayo Clinic Family Helath Book, 5th Edition; https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/sickle-cell-anemia/symptoms-causes/syc-20355876

49) Fuller, Randall, “Reading Charles Darwin Utterly Changed How Charles Loring Brace Thought about Social Reform” Humanities, Winter 2017, Volume 38, Number 1; https://www.neh.gov/humanities/2017/winter/feature/reading-charles-darwin-utterly-changed-how-charles-loring-brace-thought-about-social-reform    

50) Miller AC, Gladwin MT. Pulmonary complications of sickle cell disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2012 Jun 1;185(11):1154-65. doi: 10.1164/rccm.201111-2082CI. Epub 2012 Mar 23. PMID: 22447965; PMCID: PMC3373067. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3373067/

51) Xu JZ, Thein SL. The carrier state for sickle cell disease is not completely harmless. Haematologica. 2019 Jun;104(6):1106-1111. doi: 10.3324/haematol.2018.206060. Epub 2019 May 16. PMID: 31097635; PMCID: PMC6545856. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6545856/

52)  Lynch M. The lower bound to the evolution of mutation rates. Genome Biol Evol. 2011;3:1107-18. doi: 10.1093/gbe/evr066. Epub 2011 Aug 4. PMID: 21821597; PMCID: PMC3194889. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3194889/

53) Lynch, Michael, “Rate, molecular spectrum, and consequences of human mutation” Dec, 2009, 107 (3) 961-968; https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0912629107

54) J. C. Sanford, Genetic Entropy and the Mystery of the Genome, 3rd ed. (Waterloo, NY: FMS Publications, 2008).

55) Drake JW. “A constant rate of spontaneous mutation in DNA-based microbes.” Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 1991; 88:7160–7164.

56) Gould, S. J., & Eldredge, N. (1977). “Punctuated equilibria: the tempo and mode of evolution reconsidered.” Paleobiology 3 (2): 115-151.

57) Meyers, Stephen, Book “Darwin’s Doubt” p. 1-22 & p. 69

58) Darwin, Charles, Book “The Origin of Species” Chapter 9: On the Imperfection of the Geological Record. http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/origin/chapter9.html

59) Dunn, L. C., “Genetic Monsters” Scientific American, Journal Article, Vol. 182, No. 6 (June 1950), pp. 16-19, Published By: Scientific American, a division of Nature America, Inc. https://www.jstor.org/stable/24967471

60) Meyers, Stephen, Book “Darwin’s Doubt” p. 277

61) Forey, P. L., “Biological Radiations and Speciation” Encyclopedia of Geology, 2005

62) Eldredge, N. & Gould, S. J. (1972). “Punctuated equilibria: an alternative to phyletic gradualism” In T.J.M. Schopf, ed., Models in Paleobiology. San Francisco: Freeman Cooper. pp. 82-115. Reprinted in N. Eldredge Time frames. Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1985, pp. 193-223.

63) Donoghue PC, Yang Z. The evolution of methods for establishing evolutionary timescales. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 2016 Jul 19;371(1699):20160020. doi: 10.1098/rstb.2016.0020. PMID: 27325838; PMCID: PMC4920342.; https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4920342/

64) Darwin C. On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life. London: John Murray; 1859.; From https://evolution-outreach.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1007/s12052-009-0128-1

65) Ho, Simon, Ph.D. “The Molecular Clock and Estimating Species Divergence” Australia National University, 2008, Nature Education; https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/the-molecular-clock-and-estimating-species-divergence-41971/

66)   Wray, Gregory A., Levinton, Jeffery S., Shapiro, Leo H., “Molecular Evidence for Deep Precambrian Divergences Among Metazoan Phyla,” Science, Oct, 1996, Vol 274, Issue 5287, pp. 568-573, DOI: 10.1126/science.274.5287.568;  https://www.science.org/doi/abs/10.1126/science.274.5287.568?ijkey=4Gb.zrAEYeyQM

67) Simon Y. W. Ho and others, Accuracy of Rate Estimation Using Relaxed-Clock Models with a Critical Focus on the Early Metazoan Radiation, Molecular Biology and Evolution, Volume 22, Issue 5, May 2005, Pages 1355–1363, https://doi.org/10.1093/molbev/msi125;https://academic.oup.com/mbe/article/22/5/1355/1066989

68) “Darwin’s Doubt” by Stephen C Meyer; 2013; pg. 106

69) Stefanelli, Gilda, et. al., “Epigenetic Mechanisms of Learning and Memory in Molecular-Genetic and Statistical Techniques for Behavioral and Neural Research”, 2018; https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/histone

70) Robinson R. Histones are passed back to stay in place, more or less. PLoS Biol. 2011 Jun;9(6):e1001072. doi: 10.1371/journal.pbio.1001072. Epub 2011 Jun 7. PMID: 21666804; PMCID: PMC3110176.; https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3110176/

71) “Darwin’s Doubt” by Stephen C Meyer; 2013; pages 109-111

72)  Gibney, E. R., Nolan, C. M., “Epigenetics and gene expression- Heredity” 07, 2010,; https://doi.org/10.1038/hdy.2010.54; https://www.nature.com/articles/hdy201054#citeas

73) Smocovitis, Vassiliki, “The Modern Synthesis” Oxford Bibiographies Aug, 2022; DOI: 10.1093/OBO/9780199941728-0115; https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780199941728/obo-9780199941728-0115.xml#:~:text=As%20Ernst%20Mayr%20noted%2C%20the,1859%2C%20which%20included%20Lamarckian%20inheritance.

74) Ridley, Mark “Evolution- Lamarkian Inheritance” Blackwell Publishing; https://www.blackwellpublishing.com/ridley/a-z/Lamarckian_inheritance.asp

75) Ridley, Mark “Evolution- Mendel laws of heredity” Blackwell Publishing; https://www.blackwellpublishing.com/ridley/a-z/Mendels_laws_of_heredity.asp

76) Akson, “Childhood stress of mice affects their offspring behavior” Russian Science Communication Association, Jan, 2019; https://phys.org/news/2019-01-childhood-stress-mice-affects-offspring.html#:~:text=Russian%20neuroscientists%20report%20that%20the,life%20affects%20the%20mammalian%20brain.

77) “Mice Fathers Pass Down Stress Responses to Offspring via Sperm” June, 2021 Genetics Neuroscience, Society for Neuroscience; https://www.sfn.org/

78) “Allele Frequencies” Scitable; https://www.nature.com/scitable/definition/allele-frequency-298/

79) Casanova, Emily, The Absurdity of “Just so Stories” in Explaining Evolution” May, 2016; https://scienceoveracuppa.com/2016/05/22/the-absurdity-of-just-so-stories-in-explaining-evolution/

80) Gupta, SudipDas. “The Camel’s Hump by Rudyard Kipling; From “Just So Stories 1902”; https://poemanalysis.com/rudyard-kipling/the-camels-hump/</a>.

81) Merriam-Webster Dictionary Online; “adaptation” (as a noun); https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/adaptation

82) Black, Riley “How Giraffes Became Winners by a Neck” Oct, 2015 National Geographic; https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/how-giraffes-became-winners-by-a-neck

83) Dionlslo, Chloe “Why the Long Face? Extinct Headbutting Relatives Reveal Giraffes’ Neck Evolution” June, 2022; https://www.discovery.com/nature/why-giraffes-evolved-to-have-long-necks

84) Behe, Michael “Darwin Devolves” Feb, 2019 pg. 232;  

85) Gutiérrez-Preciado, Ana, B.Sc. “An Evolutionary Perspective on Amino Acids”, Scitable by Nature Education; https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/an-evolutionary-perspective-on-amino-acids-14568445/#:~:text=Today%2C%20the%20vast%20majority%20of,emerge%20from%20biosynthetic%20enzymatic%20reactions.

86) Meyer, Stephen C “Signature in the Cell” p. 246

87) Cooper GM. The Cell: A Molecular Approach. 2nd edition. Sunderland (MA): Sinauer Associates; 2000. Protein Folding and Processing. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK9843/

88) Schwarz DS, Blower MD. The endoplasmic reticulum: structure, function and response to cellular signaling. Cell Mol Life Sci. 2016 Jan;73(1):79-94. doi: 10.1007/s00018-015-2052-6. Epub 2015 Oct 3. PMID: 26433683; PMCID: PMC4700099.;  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4700099/#:~:text=The%20endoplasmic%20reticulum%20(ER)%20is,sheets%20and%20the%20nuclear%20envelope.

89) Axe DD. Estimating the prevalence of protein sequences adopting functional enzyme folds. J Mol Biol. 2004 Aug 27;341(5):1295-315. DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2004.06.058. PMID: 15321723.9-

90) Connerly, Pamela L. Ph.D. (Dept .of Biology, Indiana University Southeast), “How Do Proteins Move Through the Golgi Apparatus?” Nature Education, 2010; How Do Proteins Move Through the Golgi Apparatus? Nature Education 3(9):60; https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/how-do-proteins-move-through-the-golgi-14397318/

91) Fixxx: Mutations are Harmful, a list of references from the website “evolutionisamyth.com”

92) Ashenhurst, James “Sterochemistry and Chirality: What is a Racemic Mixture?” Master Organic Chemistry, Dec, 2022; https://www.masterorganicchemistry.com/2012/05/23/whats-a-racemic-mixture/

93) Tour, James “Chiral Induced Spin Selectivity” Dec, 2016; Karen Michaeli, Nirit Kantor-Uriel, Ron Naaman, and David Waldeck, “The Electron’s Spin and Molecular Chirality—How Are They Related and How Do They Affect Life Processes?” Chemical Society Reviews (2016), doi:10.1039/C6CS00369A.; https://inference-review.com/article/chiral-induced-spin-selectivity

94) Eberlin, Marcos “Foresight: How the Chemistry of Life Reveals Planning and Purpose” 2019, Discovery Press, p. 70-74.

95) Eberlin, Marcos “Foresight: How the Chemistry of Life Reveals Planning and Purpose” 2019, Discovery Press, p. 70.

96) Ponomarenko EA, Poverennaya EV, Ilgisonis EV, Pyatnitskiy MA, Kopylov AT, Zgoda VG, Lisitsa AV, Archakov AI. The Size of the Human Proteome: The Width and Depth. Int J Anal Chem. 2016;2016:7436849. doi: 10.1155/2016/7436849. Epub 2016 May 19. PMID: 27298622; PMCID: PMC4889822.; https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4889822/

97) Morgan, Laurence A. Blog “Sandwalk: Strolling with a skeptical biochemist” Apr, 2008; https://sandwalk.blogspot.com/2008/04/levinthals-paradox.html

98) Study.com “The average size of a protein in a human cell is about 430 amino acids…”; https://homework.study.com/explanation/the-average-size-of-a-protein-in-a-human-cell-is-about-430-amino-acids-yet-the-average-gene-in-the-human-genome-is-27-000-nucleotide-pairs-long-with-what-you-know-of-biology-briefly-explain-why-these-numbers-are-so-different.html

99) Krüger M, Linke WA. The giant protein titin: a regulatory node that integrates myocyte signaling pathways. J Biol Chem. 2011 Mar 25;286(12):9905-12. doi: 10.1074/jbc.R110.173260. Epub 2011 Jan 21. PMID: 21257761; PMCID: PMC3060543; https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3060543/#:~:text=The%20human%20titin%20gene%20comprises,protein%20in%20the%20human%20body.

100) Britannica (online), Apr, 2023; https://www.britannica.com/science/hemoglobin

101) “Study of Genesis”, Chuck Missler, Koinonia House, Idaho ISBN 1-57821-252-9. Audio and copyrighted printed supplemental materials.

102) Oyama M, Itagaki C, Hata H, Suzuki Y, Izumi T, Natsume T, Isobe T, Sugano S. Analysis of small human proteins reveals the translation of upstream open reading frames of mRNAs. Genome Res. 2004 Oct;14(10B):2048-52. doi: 10.1101/gr.2384604. PMID: 15489325; PMCID: PMC528919. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC528919/

103) The Universe Clock, The Age of the Universe In Seconds, Center for Perfection Studies, Dec, 2022; https://81018.com/universeclock/#:~:text=Most%20of%20us%20think%20the%20universe%20has%20no%20age.&text=Multiply%2013.82%20billion%20times%2031%2C556%2C952%20seconds%20and%20it%20should%20equal%20436%2C117%2C076%2C600%2C000%2C000%20seconds.

104) Food and Drug Administration; “How many doses of an Ames-Positive/ Mutagenic (DNA Reactive) Drug can be safely administered to Healthy Subjects”: Nov, 2019; https://www.fda.gov/media/133320/download#:~:text=Mutation%3A%20the%20changing%20of%20the,sections%20of%20genes%20or%20chromosomes.

105) Wasta, Venessa; John Hopkins University of Medicine “New study sheds light on why cancer often strikes those with healthy lifestyles” Mar, 2017;  https://hub.jhu.edu/2017/03/23/cancer-mutations-caused-by-random-dna-mistakes/

106) Dr. Joachim Weischenfeldt; http://citechdaily.com/massive-genetic-map-of-cancer-mutations-cataloged-available-to-doctors-and-researchers-worldwide/

107) Desai M, Fisher DS. “Beneficial mutation selection balance and the effect of linkage on positive selection”, Genetics. 2007 Jul;176(3):1759-98. doi: 10.1534/genetics.106.067678. Epub 2007 May 4. PMID: 17483432; PMCID: PMC1931526. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1931526/

108) Handwerk, Brian, “Why Did Europeans Evolve Into Becoming Lactose Tolerant? Famine and disease from millennia ago likely spurred the rapid evolution of the trait on the continent”, Smithsonian Magazine, July, 2022; https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/famine-and-diseases-likely-drove-europeans-ability-to-digest-milk-180980483/#:~:text=In%20a%20study%20published%20today,first%20started%20consuming%20the%20beverage.

109) Lee, Adam, “4 Benefical evolutionary mutations that humans are undergoing right now: Oct, 2011; https://bigthink.com/surprising-science/evolution-is-still-happening-beneficial-mutations-in-humans/  SAME AS 47!

110) Gabriele Jordan; Samir S. Deeb; Jenny M. Bosten; J. D. Mollon, “The dimensionality of color vision in carriers of anomalous trichromacy”, July, 2010; https://jov.arvojournals.org/article.aspx?articleid=2191517

111) Meyer, Stephen C “Darwin’s Doubt” page 191-194

112) Michael Behe “Darwin Devolves” p.294

113) Melkikh, Alexey V., Meijer, Dirk K.F., “On a generalized Levinthal’s paradox: The role of long- and short range interactions in complex bio-molecular reactions, including protein and DNA folding” Sept, 2017; https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0079610717300846

114) Devis, Deborah, “Can we really extract ancient DNA from dinosaurs?” Cosmos & Paleontology, Oct 2021; https://cosmosmagazine.com/history/palaeontology/can-we-really-extract-ancient-dna-from-dinosaurs/

115) de la Chaux N, Messer PW, Arndt PF. DNA indels in coding regions reveal selective constraints on protein evolution in the human lineage. BMC Evol Biol. 2007 Oct 12;7:191. doi: 10.1186/1471-2148-7-191. PMID: 17935613; https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2151769/

116) Latorre, Anparo; Silvia, Francisco, “The size of the genome and the complexity of living beings” Published in Metode, Feb, 2013; https://metode.org/issues/monographs/the-size-of-the-genome-and-the-complexity-of-living-beings.html

117) Touchman, Jeffery; “Comparative Genomics,” School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, 2010, Nature Education Knowledge 3(10):13; https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/comparative-genomics-13239404/

118) Talon M, Gmitter FG Jr. Citrus genomics. Int J Plant Genomics. 2008;2008:528361. doi: 10.1155/2008/528361. PMID: 18509486; PMCID: PMC2396216; https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2396216/#:~:text=It%20is%20160%2C129%20bp%20in,%2C%20and%2030%20distinct%20tRNAs).

119) Thompson, Helen, “An Evolutionary Whodunit: How Did Humans Develop Lactose Tolerance?” NPR, Dec, 2012; https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2012/12/27/168144785/an-evolutionary-whodunit-how-did-humans-develop-lactose-tolerance

120)  “Lactose Intolerance by Country” July, 2022 by Brittanica ProCon.org; https://milk.procon.org/lactose-intolerance-by-country/

121) Mattar R, de Campos Mazo DF, Carrilho FJ. Lactose intolerance: diagnosis, genetic, and clinical factors. Clin Exp Gastroenterol. 2012;5:113-21. doi: 10.2147/CEG.S32368. Epub 2012 Jul 5. PMID: 22826639; PMCID: PMC3401057.; https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3401057/

122) Caspar, K.R., Biggemann, M., Geissmann, T. et al. Ocular pigmentation in humans, great apes, and gibbons is not suggestive of communicative functions. Sci Rep 11, 12994 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-92348-z; https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-021-92348-z#citeas

123) Main, Douglas, “Ancient Mutation Explains Missing Wisdom Teeth” LiveScience Mar, 2013; https://www.livescience.com/27529-missing-wisdom-teeth.html

124) Alex, Bridget, “Neanderthal Brains: Bigger, Not Necessarily Better: Neanderthals had bigger skulls than modern humans do, but that doesn’t mean they’d beat us at chess.” Discover Magazine Online; Sept,2018; https://www.discovermagazine.com/planet-earth/neanderthal-brains-bigger-not-necessarily-better

125) Lorenzo, Felipe R., Huff, Chad, et al., “A genetic mechanism for Tibetan high-altitude adaptation”. Published on line by Nat Genet, Aug, 2017, 46(9): 951–956. doi: 10.1038/ng.3067; PMCID: PMC4473257NIHMSID: NIHMS699843PMID: 25129147; https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4473257/

126)  Brutsaert, Tom D.; Kiyamu, Melisa; Revollendo, Gianpietro; +5; “Association of EGLN1 gene with high aerobic capacity of Peruvian Quechua at high altitude,” Case Western Reserve University, Nov, 2019, 116 (48) 24006-24011 ; https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1906171116; https://www.pnas.org/content/116/48/24006

127) Cancer Genetics Web: “EGLN1” NCBI, Sept, 2019, http://www.cancerindex.org/geneweb/EGLN1.htm

128) News Wise “Genetic mutation may hold answers to controlled breathing” University of Warwick, Aug, 2020; https://www.newswise.com/articles/genetic-mutation-may-hold-answers-to-controlled-breathing

129) Flavia Niccolini MD, Niccolo E. Mencacci MD, PhD, Tayyabah Yousaf MSc, Eugenii A. Rabiner MD, Vincenzo Salpietro MD; et al. “PDE10A and ADCY5 mutations linked to molecular and microstructural basal ganglia pathology” Movement Disorders, Vol. 33, Issue 12 p. 1961-1965; Oct, 2018; https://movementdisorders.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/mds.27523

130) Diggle CP, Sukoff Rizzo SJ, Popiolek M, Hinttala R, Schülke JP, Kurian MA, Carr IM, Markham AF, Bonthron DT, Watson C, Sharif SM, Reinhart V, James LC, Vanase-Frawley MA, Charych E, Allen M, Harms J, Schmidt CJ, Ng J, Pysden K, Strick C, Vieira P, Mankinen K, Kokkonen H, Kallioinen M, Sormunen R, Rinne JO, Johansson J, Alakurtti K, Huilaja L, Hurskainen T, Tasanen K, Anttila E, Marques TR, Howes O, Politis M, Fahiminiya S, Nguyen KQ, Majewski J, Uusimaa J, Sheridan E, Brandon NJ. Biallelic Mutations in PDE10A Lead to Loss of Striatal PDE10A and a Hyperkinetic Movement Disorder with Onset in Infancy. Am J Hum Genet. 2016 Apr 7;98(4):735-43. doi: 10.1016/j.ajhg.2016.03.015. PMID: 27058446; PMCID: PMC4833436; https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27058446/

131) “Genetic mutation may hold answers to controlled breathing” University of Warwick, Aug, 2020; Published on NewsWise on line; https://www.newswise.com/articles/genetic-mutation-may-hold-answers-to-controlled-breathing

132) Niccolini, F., Mencacci, N. E., Yousaf, T., Rabiner, E. A., Salpietro, V., Pagano, G., Balint, B., Efthymiou, S., Houlden, H., Gunn, R. N., Wood, N., Bhatia, K. P., & Politis, M. (2018). PDE10A and ADCY5 mutations linked to molecular and microstructural basal ganglia pathology. Movement Disorders, 33(12), 1961-1965. https://doi.org/10.1002/mds.27523;https://movementdisorders.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/mds.27523

133)  Levine, Fred from The Encyclopedia of the Neurological Sciences “Fetal and Neonatal Physiology” (Fifth Edition- 2017); ScienceDirect; https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/autosomal-dominant-disorder

134) Frenette, P. S., & Atweh, G. F. (2007). Sickle cell disease: Old discoveries, new concepts, and future promise. Journal of Clinical Investigation, 117(4), 850-858. https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI30920; https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1838946/

135) The Sickle Cell Association of New Jersey “A Brief History of Sickle Cell Disease” http://www.sicklecellnewjersey.org/about-scanj/history-of-sickle-cell/#:~:text=The%20origin%20of%20the%20mutation,%2C%20approximately%2070%2D150%2C000%20years.

136) Mayo Clinic “Sickle Cell anemia” https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/sickle-cell-anemia/symptoms-causes/syc-20355876

137) Lee, Adam “4 beneficial evolutionary mutations that humans are undergoing right now” Big Think https://bigthink.com/surprising-science/evolution-is-still-happening-beneficial-mutations-in-humans/

138) Protein Coding (Updated: May 21, 2023 ; GC11M116835; https://www.genecards.org/cgi-bin/carddisp.pl?gene=APOA1

139) NIH, National Library of Medicine, National Center for Biotechnology Information, APOA1, Gene ID 335, Jun, 2023; https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/gene/335

140) NIH, National Library of Medicine, PMC PubMed Central, Mangaraj M, Nanda R, Panda S. Apolipoprotein A-I: A Molecule of Diverse Function. Indian J Clin Biochem. 2016 Jul;31(3):253-9. doi: 10.1007/s12291-015-0513-1. Epub 2015 Jul 16. PMID: 27382195; PMCID: PMC4910842; https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4910842/#:~:text=Apolipoprotein%20A%2DI%20(apo%20A%2DI)%20an,cholesterol%20homeostasis%20since%20its%20identification.

141) NIH, National Library of Medicine, Medline Plus, APOA1 Gene, https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/gene/apoa1/

142) GeneCards, The Human Gene Database,  APOA1 Gene – Apolipoprotein A1

143) Huang JT, Wang L, Prabakaran S, Wengenroth M, Lockstone HE, Koethe D, Gerth CW, Gross S, Schreiber D, Lilley K, Wayland M, Oxley D, Leweke FM, Bahn S (2007). “Independent protein-profiling studies show a decrease in apolipoprotein A1 levels in schizophrenia CSF, brain and peripheral tissues”. Mol Psychiatry. 13 (12): 1118–28. doi:10.1038/sj.mp.4002108. PMID

144) Mutations in LRP5 cause primary osteoporosis without features of OI by reducing Wnt signaling activity – BMC Medical Genetics

145) https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/scitranslmed.aau7137

146) https://bmcmedgenet.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1471-2350-13-26

147)  Korvala, J., Jüppner, H., Mäkitie, O. et al. Mutations in LRP5 cause primary osteoporosis without features of OI by reducing Wnt signaling activity. BMC Med Genet 13, 26 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2350-13-26

148) https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34252449/#:~:text=Adverse%20effects%20of%20calcineurin%20inhibitors,distal%20convoluted%20tubule%20(DCT).

149) https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/conditions-and-diseases/glycogen-storage-

150) https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2724665

151) https://genesenvironment.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s41021-019-0133-8/

152) https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5986729/

153) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E._coli_long-term_evolution_experiment

154) https://creation.com/F-evolving-in-the-lab-lenski-citrate-digesting-e-coli

155)   “Citrate Death Spiral” Behe, Michael JUNE, 2020 https://www.discovery.org/a/citrate-death-spiral/

156) https://evolutionnews.org/2016/05/richard_lenski/

157) Ferrero MR, Tavares LP, Garcia CC. The Dual Role of CCR5 in the Course of Influenza Infection: Exploring Treatment Opportunities. Front Immunol. 2022 Jan 20;12:826621. doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.826621. PMID: 35126379; PMCID: PMC8810482. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8810482/

158) Venuti, Assunta; Pastori, Claudia; Lopalco, Lucia, “The Role of Natural Anti-bodies to CC Chemokine Receptor 5 in HIV infection.” Oct 2017; Frontiers in Immunology;  Frontiers | The Role of Natural Antibodies to CC Chemokine Receptor 5 in HIV Infection (frontiersin.org)

159) Xie Y, Zhan S, Ge W, Tang P. The potential risks of C-C chemokine receptor 5-edited babies in bone development. Bone Res. 2019 Jan 29;7:4. doi 10.1038/s41413-019-0044-0. PMID: 30701110; PMCID: PMC6351561.

160) Paoli, Julia, “HIV Resistant Mutation,” Oct 2013, Scitable by Nature Education; https://www.nature.com/scitable/blog/viruses101/hiv_resistant_mutation/#:~:text=A%20genetic%20mutation%20known%20as,sit%20outside%20of%20the%20cell.

161) Entanglement of CCR5 and Alzheimer’s Disease; Aging Neurosci., 07 August 2019; Sec. Alzheimer’s Disease and Related Dementias; Li, Tianwen Li & Zhu, Jianhong Aug 2019; https://doi.org/10.3389/fnagi.2019.00209

162) Zhou M, Greenhill S, Huang S, Silva TK, Sano Y, Wu S, Cai Y, Nagaoka Y, Sehgal M, Cai DJ, Lee YS, Fox K, Silva AJ. CCR5 is a suppressor for cortical plasticity and hippocampal learning and memory. Elife. 2016 Dec 20;5:e20985. doi: 10.7554/eLife.20985. PMID: 27996938; PMCID: PMC5213777

163) Science, “Don’t It Make Your Brown Eyes Blue?” Feb, 2008; https://www.science.org/content/article/dont-it-make-your-brown-eyes-blue

164) https://worldpopulationreview.com/country-rankings/eye-color-percentage-by-country

165) https://homework.study.com/explanation/which-of-the-following-human-cells-contains-a-gene-that-specifies-eye-color-a-cells-in-the-eye-b-cells-in-the-heart-gametes-sperm-and-egg-c-cells-in-the-eye-and-gametes-d-all-of-the-above.html#:~:text=Gametes%20are%20described%20as%20organisms,females%20and%20sperms%20in%20males

166) Caspar, Kai R.; Biggemann, Marco; Geissmann, Thomas; Begall, Sabine, “Ocular pigmentation in humans, great apes, and gibbons is not suggestive of communicative functions” June, 2021, Scientific Reports; https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-92348-z

167)  Newcomb, Tim, “Everyone With Blue Eyes May Descend From a Single Human Ancestor” May, 2023; https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/technology/everyone-with-blue-eyes-may-descend-from-a-single-human-ancestor/ar-AA1a9Lku?ocid=msedgdhp&pc=U531&cvid=65e0aa1123714f91b8d94708793dcf27&ei=34

168) Keogh, Louise, “Why don’t people want genetic testing?” University of Melbourne; Melbourne School of Population and Global Health,Mar, 2017 https://mspgh.unimelb.edu.au/centres-institutes/centre-for-health-equity/news-and-events/archived-news/why-it-might-be-time-to-reconsider-the-money-spent-on-genetics-research#:~:text=Worldwide%2C%20at%20least%20US%243,to%20the%20prevention%20of%20disease.

169)  Weischenfeldt, Joachim; https://scitechdaily.com/massive-genetic-map-of-cancer-mutations-cataloged-available-to-doctors-and-researchers-worldwide/

 170) NIH Medline Plus, Genetic conditions, https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/condition/ and https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_genetic_disorders

171) Loewe L, Hill WG. The population genetics of mutations: good, bad and indifferent. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 2010 Apr 27;365(1544):1153-67. doi: 10.1098/rstb.2009.0317. PMID: 20308090; PMCID: PMC2871823. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2871823/

172) LibreTexts Biology 4.10: Mutational Effects; https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_and_General_Biology/Introductory_Biology_(CK-12)/04%3A_Molecular_Biology/4.10%3A_Mutation_Effects

173) Scitable by Nature Education, “An Evolutionary Perspective on Amino Acids” By: Ana Gutiérrez-Preciado, B.Sc. (Departamento de Microbiologia Molecular, Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico), Hector Romero, B.Sc. & Mariana Peimbert, Ph.D. (Departamento de Ciencias Naturales, Universidad Autonoma Metropolitana) © 2010 Nature Education

Citation: Gutiérrez-Preciado, A., Romero, H. & Peimbert, M. (2010) An Evolutionary Perspective on Amino Acids. Nature Education 3(9):29; https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/an-evolutionary-perspective-on-amino-acids-14568445/

174) Biothermodynamics, Part B, by Clark, Patricia, Ugirnov, Krastyu, in “Methods in Enzmology” Science Direct (on line); https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/protein-folding

175) USDA Department of Agriculture, “High Altitude Cooking” https://www.fsis.usda.gov/food-safety/safe-food-handling-and-preparation/food-safety-basics/high-altitude-cooking#:~:text=As%20atmospheric%20pressure%20decreases%2C%20water,at%20about%20198%20%C2%B0F.

176) Gaughan, Richard, Seattle PI on-line, “What causes gametes to have only one Allele? https://education.seattlepi.com/relationship-between-chromosome-allele-4733.html

177) Pappas, Stephanie, “Scientists uncover hidden math that governs genetic mutations” The ability of a gene to keep functioning despite mutations shows a surprising link to fundamental math. LiveScience, Aug,2023; https://www.livescience.com/physics-mathematics/mathematics/scientists-uncover-hidden-math-that-governs-genetic-mutations

178) Michigan University, News, “Study: Most ‘silent’ genetic mutations are harmful, not neutral, a finding with broad implications.” June, 2022; https://news.umich.edu/study-most-silent-genetic-mutations-are-harmful-not-neutral-a-finding-with-broad-implications/ 

179)  Shen, X., Song, S., Li, C. et al. “Synonymous mutations in representative yeast genes are mostly strongly non-neutral.” Nature 606, 725–731 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-022-04823-w; https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-022-04823-w#citeas

180) Deane, Corey; “What is the most rational evidence, if there is any, of the existence of God”? Quora post July, 2022 https://qr.ae/pvMJ1Z and quoted on  https://www.evolutionisamyth.com/biological/genetic-similarity-is-vastly-overrated/

181)  “The extended evolutionary synthesis: its structure, assumptions and predictions” Kevin N. Laland, Tobias Uller, Marcus W. Feldman, Kim Sterelny, Gerd B. Müller, Armin Moczek, Eva Jablonka and John Odling-Smee; Published:22 Aug, 2015; https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2015.1019; https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2015.1019#:~:text=The%20Modern%20Synthesis%20(MS)%20emerged,biology%20%5B4%2C5%5D.

182) Claster S, Godwin MJ, Embury SH. Risk of altitude exposure in sickle cell disease. West J Med. 1981 Nov;135(5):364-7. PMID: 7340130; PMCID: PMC1273254. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1273254/  

183) Esoh, Kevin and Wonkam, Amroise, “Evolutionary history of sickle-cell mutation: implications for global genetic medicine” Published in ‘Human Molecular Genetics’, Volume 30, Issue R1, Mar, 2021, Pages R119–R128, https://academic.oup.com/hmg/article/30/R1/R119/6103809

184) Miller AC, Gladwin MT. Pulmonary complications of sickle cell disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2012 Jun 1;185(11):1154-65. doi: 10.1164/rccm.201111-2082CI. Epub 2012 Mar 23. PMID: 22447965; PMCID: PMC3373067. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3373067/

185) Xu JZ, Thein SL. The carrier state for sickle cell disease is not completely harmless. Haematologica. 2019 Jun;104(6):1106-1111. doi: 10.3324/haematol.2018.206060. Epub 2019 May 16. PMID: 31097635; PMCID: PMC6545856. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6545856/

186) “Bacteria ‘evolving in the lab’? ‘A poke in the eye for anti-evolutionists’?” by Don Batten, Dec, 2024; https://creation.com/bacteria-evolving-in-the-lab-lenski-citrate-digesting-e-coli

187) Behe, Michael, “Citrate Death Spiral” June, 2020 INTELLIGENT DESIGN, PUBLISHED AT EVOLUTION NEWS; https://www.discovery.org/a/citrate-death-spiral/

188) Richard Lenski and Citrate Hype — Now Deflated, Michael Behe, May,2016, https://evolutionnews.org/2016/05/richard_lenski/

189)  https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2012/12/27/168144785/an-evolutionary-whodunit-how-did-humans-develop-lactose-tolerance168144785/an-evolutionary-whodunit-how-did-humans-develop-lactose-tolerance.

190) Misselwitz B, Butter M, Verbeke K, Fox MR. Update on lactose malabsorption and intolerance: pathogenesis, diagnosis and clinical management. Gut. 2019 Nov;68(11):2080-2091. doi: 10.1136/gutjnl-2019-318404. Epub 2019 Aug 19. PMID: 31427404; PMCID: PMC6839734. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6839734/

191) Gerbault P, Liebert A, Itan Y, Powell A, Currat M, Burger J, Swallow DM, Thomas MG. Evolution of lactase persistence: an example of human niche construction. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 2011 Mar 27;366(1566):863-77. doi: 10.1098/rstb.2010.0268. PMID: 21320900; PMCID: PMC3048992. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3048992/#:~:text=After%20the%20weaning%20period%20is,lactose%20found%20in%20fresh%20milk

192) Mélanie Pruvost, Reinhard Schwarz, Virginia Bessa Correia, +5 “Freshly excavated fossil bones are best for amplification of ancient DNA” Jan, 2007, 104 (3) 739-744;

193) https://dpi.wi.gov/sites/default/files/imce/community-nutrition/pdf/cacfp_special_dietary_needs.pdf

194) Erickson, Jim “Most ‘silent’ genetic mutations are harmful, not neutral, a finding with broad implications” University of Michigan News, June, 2022, https://news.umich.edu/study-most-silent-genetic-mutations-are-harmful-not-neutral-a-finding-with-broad-implications/

195) Blue-eyed humans have a single, common ancestor Jan,2008, University of Copenhagen; https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/01/080130170343.htm;

196) National Geographic Encyclopedic Entry, “Genotypes”  https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/genotypes/

197) YourGenome.org; https://www.yourgenome.org/facts/what-is-inheritance

198) Oxford Dictionary On-Line, Define “anecdotal”; 02/2024; https://www.google.com/search?q=define+anecedotal&rlz=1C1CHBF_enUS974US978&oq=define+anecedotal&gs_lcrp=EgZjaHJvbWUyBggAEEUYOTIJCAEQABgNGIAEMgkIAhAAGA0YgAQyCQgDEAAYDRiABDIJCAQQABgNGIAEMgkIBRAAGA0YgAQyCQgGEAAYDRiABDIJCAcQABgNGIAEMgkICBAAGA0YgAQyCQgJEAAYDRiABNIBCDU5OTVqMGo3qAIAsAIA&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8

199) Study.com; “The average size of a protein in a human cell is about 430 amino acids”; https://homework.study.com/explanation/the-average-size-of-a-protein-in-a-human-cell-is-about-430-amino-acids-yet-the-average-gene-in-the-human-genome-is-27-000-nucleotide-pairs-long-with-what-you-know-of-biology-briefly-explain-why-these-numbers-are-so-different.html#:~:text=Question%3A-,The%20average%20size%20of%20a%20protein%20in%20a%20human%20cell,is%2027%2C000%20nucleotide%20pairs%20long.

200) Open Access Government, “All people with blue eyes have one common ancestor”  https://www.openaccessgovernment.org/blue-eyes-pigment-common-relative/134687/#:~:text=Scientists%20reveal%20that%20a%20genetic,ancestor%20with%20one%20genetic%20mutation.

201) Tenn, Chloe, “Paleontologists Find Possible Dinosaur DNA” A report of preserved fragments of nuclei and chromatin in a fossilized femur of a 125-million-year-old Caudipteryx dinosaur elicits skepticism. Oct, 2021; https://www.the-scientist.com/news-opinion/paleontologists-find-possible-dinosaur-dna-69346

202) Ausich, William, Professor Emeritus of Paleontology, “Is it possible to recreate dinosaurs from their DNA?” The Ohio State University; Published in The Conversation, Aug, 2021; https://news.osu.edu/is-it-possible-to-recreate-dinosaurs-from-their-dna/#:~:text=Recent%20studies%20show%20DNA%20deteriorates,have%20long%20since%20fallen%20apart.

203)  Kaplan, M. DNA has a 521-year half-life. Nature (2012). https://doi.org/10.1038/nature.2012.11555;https://www.nature.com/articles/nature.2012.11555#citeas

204) Bastien Llamas, an ancient DNA expert at the Australian Centre for Ancient DNA at the University of Adelaide. “Can we really extract ancient DNA from dinosaurs?” Deborah Devis, Oct 2021. https://cosmosmagazine.com/history/palaeontology/can-we-really-extract-ancient-dna-from-dinosaurs/

205) http://discovermagazine.com/2006/apr/dinosaur-dna Yeoman, Barry (2006).

206) LiveScience “Mysterious Intact T. Rex Tissue Finally Explained” by Stephanie Pappas November 27, 2013.

207) Fields, Helen “Dinosaur Shocker” Probing a 68-million-year-old T. rex, Mary Schweitzer stumbled upon astonishing signs of life that may radically change our view of the ancient beasts” May, 2006; https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/dinosaur-shocker-115306469/

208) Alexey V. Melkikh, Dirk K.F. Meijer,”On a generalized Levinthal’s paradox: The role of long- and short range interactions in complex bio-molecular reactions, including protein and DNA folding,” Progress in Biophysics and Molecular Biology,Volume 132, 2018, Pages 57-79, ISSN 0079-6107, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pbiomolbio.2017.09.018.(https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0079610717300846)

209) Tour, James, “Time Out” Inference, July, 2019, Col 4, No. 4; https://inference-review.com/article/time-out ; source: Peter Tompa and George Rose, “The Levinthal Paradox of the Interactome,” Protein Science 20 no. 12 (2011), doi:10.1002/pro.747

210)  Hershberg R. Mutation–The Engine of Evolution: Studying Mutation and Its Role in the Evolution of Bacteria. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol. 2015 Sep 1;7(9):a018077. doi: 10.1101/cshperspect.a018077. PMID: 26330518; PMCID: PMC4563715. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4563715/

211)   Scitable by Nature Education on-line, “random genetic drift / genetic drift” https://www.nature.com/scitable/definition/genetic-drift-201/

212) Lynch M. The cellular, developmental and population-genetic determinants of mutation-rate evolution. Genetics. 2008 Oct;180(2):933-43. doi: 10.1534/genetics.108.090456. Epub 2008 Aug 30. PMID: 18757919; PMCID: PMC2567392. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2567392/

213) Hershberg R. Mutation–The Engine of Evolution: Studying Mutation and Its Role in the Evolution of Bacteria. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol. 2015 Sep 1;7(9):a018077. doi: 10.1101/cshperspect.a018077. PMID: 26330518; PMCID: PMC4563715. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4563715/

214) Lynch M. Evolution of the mutation rate. Trends Genet. 2010 Aug;26(8):345-52. doi: 10.1016/j.tig.2010.05.003. Epub 2010 Jun 30. PMID: 20594608; PMCID: PMC2910838. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2910838/

215)  Rogers, Kara. “abiogenesis”. Encyclopedia Britannica, 15 Feb. 2023, https://www.britannica.com/science/abiogenesis. Accessed 28 April 2023. Abiogenesis | Definition & Theory | Britannica

216) Lacey, Troy, “Abiogenesis: Can Life Come from Non-Living Chemicals?” Sept, 2021; https://answersingenesis.org/origin-of-life/abiogenesis/

217) Nature, Dec 2008 “Still Clueless about origin of life” K. S. Jayaraman

218) “New research rejects 80-year theory of ‘primordial soup’ as the origin of life” Feb 2010, Wiley-Blackwell, italics are mine.

219)  Video Series by James Tour on “Abiogenesis” https://youtu.be/NqoVxwdWWpg?si=8a7M93QEN1HB7K1X

220) Varki A, Cummings R, Esko J, et al., editors. Essentials of Glycobiology. Cold Spring Harbor (NY): Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press; 1999. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK20709/

221) BC Campus- Concepts of Biology section 2.3; https://opentextbc.ca/biology/chapter/2-3-biological-molecules/

222) Powell, Alvin “Mimicking life in a chemical soup” Harvard Staff Writer, Mar 2017, https://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2017/03/harvard-researcher-creates-chemical-system-that-mimics-early-cell-behavior/#:~:text=A%20Harvard%20researcher%20seeking%20a,signs%20of%20rudimentary%20evolutionary%20selection.

223) Leslie, Mitch; “Biologists create the most lifelike artificial cells yet” Cell mimics make and pass on proteins that influence their neighbors; Nov 2018, https://www.science.org/content/article/biologists-create-most-lifelike-artificial-cells-yet#:~:text=No%20biologist%20would%20mistake%20the,coat%20of%20plastic%E2%80%94polymerized%20acrylate.

224) “Disproving a 60-Year-Old Hypothesis: Most “Silent” Mutations Are Actually Harmful” SciTechDaily Derived from: University of Michigan, Aug, 2022; https://scitechdaily.com/disproving-a-60-year-old-hypothesis-most-silent-mutations-are-actually-harmful/

225) Evolution Library on line, PBS, “A matter of time” https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/evolution/library/faq/cat06.html#:~:text=Even%20though%20evolution%20is%20taking,witness%20in%20a%20human%20lifetime.

226) Giacoletto CJ, Rotter JI, Grody WW, Schiller MR. Synonymous Variants of Uncertain Silence. Int J Mol Sci. 2023 Jun 23;24(13):10556. doi: 10.3390/ijms241310556. PMID: 37445732; PMCID: PMC10341574. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10341574/#:~:text=Synonymous%20variants%2C%20traditionally%20regarded%20as,synonymous%20variants%20as%20functionally%20inert.

227) Genetic Mutation, Dr. Laurence Loewe (School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Scotland, UK.) © 2008 Nature Education, Citation: Loewe, L. (2008) Genetic mutation. Nature Education 1(1):113; https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/genetic-mutation-1127/#:~:text=Mutational%20effects%20can%20be%20beneficial,mutation’s%20probability%20of%20being%20deleterious.

228) Neutral Theory: The Null Hypothesis of Molecular Evolution, Laurent Duret, Ph.D. (Laboratoire de Biométrie et Biologie Évolutive, Université Claude Bernard, France. ), 2008 Nature Education; Citation: Duret, L. (2008) Neutral theory: The null hypothesis of molecular evolution. Nature Education 1(1):218; https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/neutral-theory-the-null-hypothesis-of-molecular-839/

228) Ferrari SL, Deutsch S, Choudhury U, Chevalley T, Bonjour JP, Dermitzakis ET, Rizzoli R, Antonarakis SE. Polymorphisms in the low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein 5 (LRP5) gene are associated with variation in vertebral bone mass, vertebral bone size, and stature in whites. Am J Hum Genet. 2004 May;74(5):866-75. doi: 10.1086/420771. Epub 2004 Apr 7. PMID: 15077203; PMCID: PMC1181981. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1181981/

229)  MacDonald BT, Semenov MV, Huang H, He X. Dissecting molecular differences between Wnt coreceptors LRP5 and LRP6. PLoS One. 2011;6(8):e23537. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0023537. Epub 2011 Aug 24. PMID: 21887268; PMCID: PMC3160902. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3160902/

230) Xu GY, Qiu Y, Mao HJ. Common polymorphism in the LRP5 gene may increase the risk of bone fracture and osteoporosis. Biomed Res Int. 2014;2014:290531. doi: 10.1155/2014/290531. Epub 2014 Dec 14. PMID: 25580429; PMCID: PMC4279179. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4279179/

231) Mélanie Pruvost, Reinhard Schwarz, Virginia Bessa Correia, +5 “Freshly excavated fossil bones are best for amplification of ancient DNA” Jan, 2007, 104 (3) 739-744; https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0610257104

232) High Bone Density Due to a Mutation in LDL-Receptor–Related Protein 5, Lynn M. Boyden, Ph.D., Junhao Mao, Ph.D., Joseph Belsky, M.D., lyle Mitzner, M.D., Anita Farhi, R.N., Mary A. Mitnick, Ph.D., Dianqing Wu, Ph.D., Karl Insogna, M.D., and Richard P. Lifton, M.D., Ph.D.May 16, 2002 N Engl J Med 2002; 346:1513-1521, DOI: 10.1056/NEJMoa013444; https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/nejmoa013444

233)   Pickering C, Kiely J. ACTN3: More than Just a Gene for Speed. Front Physiol. 2017 Dec 18;8:1080. doi: 10.3389/fphys.2017.01080. PMID: 29326606; PMCID: PMC5741991. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5741991/#:~:text=ACTN3%20is%20a%20gene%20that,premature%20stop%20codon%20(X).

234)  Friedlander SM, Herrmann AL, Lowry DP, Mepham ER, Lek M, North KN, Organ CL. ACTN3 allele frequency in humans covaries with global latitudinal gradient. PLoS One. 2013;8(1):e52282. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0052282. Epub 2013 Jan 24. PMID: 23359641; PMCID: PMC3554748.

235)  Deschamps CL, Connors KE, Klein MS, Johnsen VL, Shearer J, Vogel HJ, Devaney JM, Gordish-Dressman H, Many GM, Barfield W, Hoffman EP, Kraus WE, Hittel DS. The ACTN3 R577X Polymorphism Is Associated with Cardiometabolic Fitness in Healthy Young Adults. PLoS One. 2015 Jun 24;10(6):e0130644. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0130644. PMID: 26107372; PMCID: PMC4480966.  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4480966/

236) Goleva-Fjellet, S., Bjurholt, A.M., Kure, E.H. et al. Distribution of allele frequencies for genes associated with physical activity and/or physical capacity in a homogenous Norwegian cohort- a cross-sectional study. BMC Genet 21, 8 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12863-020-0813-1; https://bmcgenomdata.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12863-020-0813-1#citeas

237)  Nan Yang, Daniel G. MacArthur, Jason P. Gulbin, Allan G. Hahn, Alan H. Beggs, Simon Easteal, Kathryn North, ACTN3 Genotype Is Associated with Human Elite Athletic Performance, The American Journal of Human Genetics, Volume 73, Issue 3, 2003, Pages 627-631, ISSN 0002-9297, https://doi.org/10.1086/377590; (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0002929707620242)

238) Mattei J, Parnell LD, Lai CQ, Garcia-Bailo B, Adiconis X, Shen J, Arnett D, Demissie S, Tucker KL, Ordovas JM. Disparities in allele frequencies and population differentiation for 101 disease-associated single nucleotide polymorphisms between Puerto Ricans and non-Hispanic whites. BMC Genet. 2009 Aug 14;10:45. doi: 10.1186/1471-2156-10-45. PMID: 19682384; PMCID: PMC2734553.  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2734553/

239) Kim H, Song KH, Kim CH. The ACTN3 R577X variant in sprint and strength performance. J Exerc Nutrition Biochem. 2014 Dec;18(4):347-53. doi: 10.5717/jenb.2014.18.4.347. Epub 2014 Dec 6. PMID: 25671201; PMCID: PMC4322025. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4322025/

240) Alexey V. Melkikh, Dirk K.F. Meijer, On a generalized Levinthal’s paradox: The role of long- and short range interactions in complex bio-molecular reactions, including protein and DNA folding, Progress in Biophysics and Molecular Biology,Volume 132, 2018, Pages 57-79, ISSN 0079-6107, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pbiomolbio.2017.09.018.

241) National Center for Biotechnology Information (US). Genes and Disease [Internet]. Bethesda (MD): National Center for Biotechnology Information (US); 1998-. Anemia, sickle cell. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK22238/

242) MALARIA: A BENEFICIAL GENETIC MUTATION IN SOUTH-EAST ASIA, PRESS RELEASE 2009.12.10, https://www.pasteur.fr/en/malaria-beneficial-genetic-mutation-south-east-asia#:~:text=But%20the%20current%20study%20is,mutation%20in%20the%20human%20genome.

243) “Adaptive degeneration in cave fish,” Creation 45(1), Jan, 2023; https://creation.com/adaptive-degeneration-in-cave-fish

244) Lu X, Chaudhury A, Higgins JM, Wood DK. Oxygen-dependent flow of sickle trait blood as an in vitro therapeutic benchmark for sickle cell disease treatments. Am J Hematol. 2018 Oct;93(10):1227-1235. doi: 10.1002/ajh.25227. Epub 2018 Aug 21. PMID: 30033564; PMCID: PMC6604607. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6604607/

245) Quandt EM, Gollihar J, Blount ZD, Ellington AD, Georgiou G, Barrick JE. Fine-tuning citrate synthase flux potentiates and refines metabolic innovation in the Lenski evolution experiment. Elife. 2015 Oct 14;4:e09696. doi: 10.7554/eLife.09696. PMID: 26465114; PMCID: PMC4718724. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4718724/#:~:text=Diversity%20and%20dynamics%20of%20gltA,evolved%20first%20in%20the%20LTEE.

246) Leon D, D’Alton S, Quandt EM, Barrick JE. Innovation in an E. coli evolution experiment is contingent on maintaining adaptive potential until competition subsides. PLoS Genet. 2018 Apr 12;14(4):e1007348. doi: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1007348. PMID: 29649242; PMCID: PMC5918244. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5918244/#:~:text=After%2015%20years%20of%20the,carbon%20source%20in%20the%20environment.

247) “Evolution is as complicated as 1-2-3” Sept, 2012; Michigan State University, Lenski, Richard,  https://msutoday.msu.edu/news/2012/evolution-is-as-complicated-as-1-2-3-1

248) Bacteria ‘evolving in the lab’? ‘A poke in the eye for anti-evolutionists’? By Don Batten, Creation.co, Feedback 2008, https://creation.com/bacteria-evolving-in-the-lab-lenski-citrate-digesting-e-coli

249) Van Hofwegen DJ, Hovde CJ, Minnich SA, Rapid Evolution of Citrate Utilization by Escherichia coli by Direct Selection Requires citT and dctA, J Bacteriology 198(7):1022–34; Feb. 1, 2016. doi: 10.1128/JB.00831-15.

250)  Lawrence JG, Ochman H. Molecular archaeology of the Escherichia coli genome. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1998 Aug 4;95(16):9413-7. doi: 10.1073/pnas.95.16.9413. PMID: 9689094; PMCID: PMC21352. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC21352/#:~:text=coli%20genome%20were%20acquired%20nearly,recent%20origin%20in%20the%20E.

251) Lim JY, Yoon J, Hovde CJ. A brief overview of Escherichia coli O157:H7 and its plasmid O157. J Microbiol Biotechnol. 2010 Jan;20(1):5-14. PMID: 20134227; PMCID: PMC3645889.

252) Sasani TA, Quinlan AR, Harris K. Epistasis between mutator alleles contributes to germline mutation spectrum variability in laboratory mice. Elife. 2024 Feb 21;12:RP89096. doi: 10.7554/eLife.89096. PMID: 38381482. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38381482/

253) Blount ZD, Maddamsetti R, Grant NA, Ahmed ST, Jagdish T, Baxter JA, Sommerfeld BA, Tillman A, Moore J, Slonczewski JL, Barrick JE, Lenski RE. Genomic and phenotypic evolution of Escherichia coli in a novel citrate-only resource environment. Elife. 2020 May 29;9:e55414. doi: 10.7554/eLife.55414. PMID: 32469311; PMCID: PMC7299349. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7299349/

254) Watford S, Warrington SJ. Bacterial DNA Mutations. [Updated 2023 Apr 10]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2024 Jan-. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK459274/

255) https://www.physicsoftheuniverse.com/numbers.html

256) MedlinePlus “Lactose Intolerance” https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/condition/lactose-intolerance/#inheritance

257) Deng Y, Misselwitz B, Dai N, Fox M. Lactose Intolerance in Adults: Biological Mechanism and Dietary Management. Nutrients. 2015 Sep 18;7(9):8020-35. doi: 10.3390/nu7095380. PMID: 26393648; PMCID: PMC4586575. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4586575/#:~:text=Lactose%20intolerance%20depends%20not%20only,fermentation%20products%20of%20lactose%20digestion.

258) MedlinePus “Is eye color determined by genetics?” https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/understanding/traits/eyecolor/

259)  “Where Do Blue Eyes Come From?” VeryWell Online, Krystina Wagner, Mar, 2023; https://www.verywellhealth.com/blue-eyes-health-5096185

260) ABC Science, “Why did humans evolve blue eyes? https://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2015/09/04/4294967.htm

261) Philly Zoo post on X https://twitter.com/phillyzoo/status/1503850884932976644?lang=en

262) WorldAtlas Online, “Countries with the most blue-eyed people” https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/countries-with-the-most-blue-eyed-people.html

263) Hashemi H, Pakzad R, Yekta A, Shokrollahzadeh F, Ostadimoghaddam H, Mahboubipour H, Khabazkhoob M. Distribution of iris color and its association with ocular diseases in a rural population of Iran. J Curr Ophthalmol. 2018 May 24;31(3):312-318. doi: 10.1016/j.joco.2018.05.001. PMID: 31528767; PMCID: PMC6742598. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6742598/

264) “Boltzmann Distributions” LibreTexts Chemistry, Temperature and Molecular Velocities, https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/Map%3A_Structure_and_Properties_(Tro)/11%3A_Gases/11.08%3A_Temperature_and_Molecular__Velocities

265) Mathur, D., Prakash, S., Anand, P. et al. PEPlife: A Repository of the Half-life of Peptides. Sci Rep 6, 36617 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1038/srep36617; https://www.nature.com/articles/srep36617#citeas

266) Radiometric Dating: Problems with the Assumptions, Dr. Andrew A. Snelling, Answers Magazine, https://answersingenesis.org/geology/radiometric-dating/radiometric-dating-problems-with-the-assumptions/

267) Nature’s Deep Freeze. Harold E. Anthony. Natural History: 296-301. 1949 ( tDAR id: 125270)

268) “Carbon-14 Dating Explained” University of Chicago; https://news.uchicago.edu/explainer/what-is-carbon-14-dating#:~:text=Carbon%2D14%20has%20a%20half,in%20that%20amount%20of%20time.

269) “Iron is Key to preserving dinosaur soft tissues” Advanced Light Source Communications Group, https://als.lbl.gov/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/295.pdf

270) Golgi Apparatus; https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/golgi-body#:~:text=Definition,a%20series%20of%20stacked%20membranes.

271) NIH “The Shape and Structure of Proteins.” https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK26830/#:~:text=For%20a%20typical%20protein%20length,than%20exist%20in%20the%20universe.

272) NHS “Proteins” England National Genomics Education, https://www.genomicseducation.hee.nhs.uk/genotes/knowledge-hub/proteins/

273) Carija A, Pinheiro F, Iglesias V, Ventura S. Computational Assessment of Bacterial Protein Structures Indicates a Selection Against Aggregation. Cells. 2019 Aug 8;8(8):856. doi: 10.3390/cells8080856. PMID: 31398930; PMCID: PMC6721704. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6721704/

274) Behe, Michael, Dr. Book “The Edge of Evolution.” And “Darwin Devolves: The New Science about DNA That Challenges Evolution”  https://www.lehigh.edu/~inbios/Faculty/Behe.html

275) Oxford University Maths “Number of atoms in the universe” Nov 2015 https://educationblog.oup.com/secondary/maths/numbers-of-atoms-in-the-universe#:~:text=Our%20galaxy%2C%20the%20Milky%20Way,2.4%20%C3%97%201067%20atoms.

276) An article by Kenneth C Griffin of Harvard graduate school named “Protein Folding: The Good, The Bad, and The Ugly” Harvard: Science in the News; Feb 2010,  https://sitn.hms.harvard.edu/flash/2010/issue65/

277) 1- Genetic mutations directly cause common tumors and most (if not all) common cancers: Common benign and malignant tumors and the criteria that warrant assessment for cancer predisposition. Genetic mutations directly cause common tumors and most (if not all) common cancers: Common benign and malignant tumors and the criteria that warrant assessment for cancer predisposition 2- Genetic mutations directly cause rare deformities, including tumors and rare cancers: Rare benign and malignant tumors and the criteria warrant assessment for cancer predisposition. Genetic mutations directly cause rare deformities, including tumors and rare cancers: Rare benign and malignant tumors and the criteria that warrant assessment for cancer predisposition 3- A list of known cancers such as skin or breast cancer directly caused by a genetic mutation (1st list): Carney complex criteria. 4- A list of known cancers such as skin or breast cancer directly caused by a genetic mutation (2nd list): Cowden syndrome criteria (National Comprehensive Cancer Network, 2013); 5- An enumerated list of disorders directly caused by genetic mutation: List of genetic disorders – Wikipedia; 6- Disabilities such as Autism directly linked to genetic mutations: Autism spectrum disorder: MedlinePlus Genetics; 7-Genetic mutations cause birth defects called congenital defects: https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Birth-Defect; 8- Birth defects are directly caused by genetic mutations: https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/birth-defects-causes-and-statistics-863/; 9- Genetic mutations are directly known to cause deformities such as cystic fibrosis or sickle cell disease: https://www.marchofdimes.org/pregnancy/genetic-and-chromosomal-conditions.aspx 10-Genetic mutations directly cause mass fetal death: “In the United States, major congenital malformations, affecting approximately 2% of births, are also reported to be the leading cause of infant mortality… the known contribution of genetic disorders to infant mortality will likely continue to increase.” Infant Mortality: the Contribution of Genetic Disorders. Infant Mortality: the Contribution of Genetic Disorders

278) The national economic burden of rare disease in the United States in 2019; Grace Yang, Inna Cintina, Anne Pariser, Elisabeth Oehrlein, Jamie Sullivan & Annie Kennedy; Orphanet Journal of Rare Diseases volume 17, Article number: 163 (2022); https://ojrd.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13023-022-02299-5

279) Wong, C.H., Li, D., Wang, N. et al. The estimated annual financial impact of gene therapy in the United States. Gene Ther 30, 761–773 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41434-023-00419-922-02299-5; https://www.nature.com/articles/s41434-023-00419-9#citeas

280) Adams J. The proteasome: structure, function, and role in the cell. Cancer Treat Rev. 2003 May;29 Suppl 1:3-9. doi: 10.1016/s0305-7372(03)00081-1. PMID: 12738238. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12738238/#:~:text=The%20proteasome%20is%20a%20multisubunit,important%20target%20for%20anticancer%20therapy.

281) UN, Envirnoment Ozone, “What is the ozone layer?” https://ozone.unep.org/ozone-and-you.

282) “The RNA World and the Origins of Life” NIH, from the Moleclular Biology of the Cell, 4th Edition; https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK26876/#:~:text=The%20hypothesis%20that%20RNA%20preceded,gradually%20been%20replaced%20by%20RNA.

283) Korvala J, Jüppner H, Mäkitie O, Sochett E, Schnabel D, Mora S, Bartels CF, Warman ML, Deraska D, Cole WG, Hartikka H, Ala-Kokko L, Männikkö M. Mutations in LRP5 cause primary osteoporosis without features of OI by reducing Wnt signaling activity. BMC Med Genet. 2012 Apr 10;13:26. doi: 10.1186/1471-2350-13-26. PMID: 22487062; PMCID: PMC3374890. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22487062/

284) Korvala, J., Jüppner, H., Mäkitie, O. et al. Mutations in LRP5 cause primary osteoporosis without features of OI by reducing Wnt signaling activity. BMC Med Genet 13, 26 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2350-13-26; https://bmcmedgenet.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1471-2350-13-26

285) Julia Luther et al. ,Wnt1 is an Lrp5-independent bone-anabolic Wnt ligand.Sci. Transl. Med.10,eaau7137(2018).DOI:10.1126/scitranslmed.aau7137; https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/scitranslmed.aau7137

286) Korvala, J., Jüppner, H., Mäkitie, O. et al. Mutations in LRP5 cause primary osteoporosis without features of OI by reducing Wnt signaling activity. BMC Med Genet 13, 26 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2350-13-26

287) Garton FC, Houweling PJ, Vukcevic D, Meehan LR, Lee FXZ, Lek M, Roeszler KN, Hogarth MW, Tiong CF, Zannino D, Yang N, Leslie S, Gregorevic P, Head SI, Seto JT, North KN. The Effect of ACTN3 Gene Doping on Skeletal Muscle Performance. Am J Hum Genet. 2018 May 3;102(5):845-857. doi: 10.1016/j.ajhg.2018.03.009. Epub 2018 Apr 26. PMID: 29706347; PMCID: PMC5986729. The Effect of ACTN3 Gene Doping on Skeletal Muscle Performance; https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5986729/ 

288) Johns Hopkins “Glycogen Storage Disease” https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/conditions-and-diseases/glycogen-storage-

289) Banki E, Fisi V, Moser S, Wengi A, Carrel M, Loffing-Cueni D, Penton D, Kratschmar DV, Rizzo L, Lienkamp S, Odermatt A, Rinschen MM, Loffing J. Specific disruption of calcineurin-signaling in the distal convoluted tubule impacts the transcriptome and proteome, and causes hypomagnesemia and metabolic acidosis. Kidney Int. 2021 Oct;100(4):850-869. doi: 10.1016/j.kint.2021.06.030. Epub 2021 Jul 10. PMID: 34252449. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34252449/#:~:text=Adverse%20effects%20of%20calcineurin%20inhibitors,distal%20convoluted%20tubule%20(DCT).  

290) Uttara B, Singh AV, Zamboni P, Mahajan RT. Oxidative stress and neurodegenerative diseases: a review of upstream and downstream antioxidant therapeutic options. Curr Neuropharmacol. 2009 Mar;7(1):65-74. doi: 10.2174/157015909787602823. PMID: 19721819; PMCID: PMC2724665. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2724665/

291) Bottura, R.M., Lima, G.H.O., Hipolide, D.C. et al. Association between ACTN3 and acute mountain sickness. Genes and Environ 41, 18 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1186/s41021-019-0133-8; https://genesenvironment.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s41021-019-0133-8

292) Hummel S, Schmidt D, Kremeyer B, Herrmann B, Oppermann M. Detection of the CCR5-Delta32 HIV resistance gene in Bronze Age skeletons. Genes Immun. 2005 Jun;6(4):371-4. doi: 10.1038/sj.gene.6364172. PMID: 15815693. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15815693/

293) Smoljanović M, Ristić S, Hayward C. Historic exposure to plague and present-day frequency of CCR5del32 in two isolated island communities of Dalmatia, Croatia. Croat Med J. 2006 Aug;47(4):579-84. PMID: 16909455; PMCID: PMC2080457. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2080457/

294) Medieval Black Death Was Probably Not Bubonic Plague, Apr, 2002; Penn State, https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2002/04/020415073417.htm

295) J. Claiborne Stephens, David E. Reich, David B. Goldstein, Hyoung Doo Shin, Michael W. Smith, Mary Carrington, Cheryl Winkler, Gavin A. Huttley, Rando Allikmets, Lynn Schriml, Bernard Gerrard, Michael Malasky, Maria D. Ramos, Susanne Morlot, Maria Tzetis, Carole Oddoux, Francesco S. di Giovine, Georgios Nasioulas, David Chandler, Michael Aseev, Matthew Hanson, Luba Kalaydjieva, Damjan Glavac, Paolo Gasparini, E. Kanavakis, Mireille Claustres, Marios Kambouris, Harry Ostrer, Gordon Duff, Vladislav Baranov, Hiljar Sibul, Andres Metspalu, David Goldman, Nick Martin, David Duffy, Jorg Schmidtke, Xavier Estivill, Stephen J. O’Brien, Michael Dean, “Dating the Origin of the CCR5-Δ32 AIDS-Resistance Allele by the Coalescence of Haplotypes,” The American Journal of Human Genetics,

Volume 62, Issue 6, 1998, Pages 1507-1515, ISSN 0002-9297, https://doi.org/10.1086/301867.

296) “The Genetic Mutation Behind the Only Apparent Cure for HIV” Mar, 2019; Martha Kempner, https://www.thebodypro.com/article/genetic-mutation-behind-hiv-cure

297) Ferrero MR, Tavares LP, Garcia CC. The Dual Role of CCR5 in the Course of Influenza Infection: Exploring Treatment Opportunities. Front Immunol. 2022 Jan 20;12:826621. doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.826621. PMID: 35126379; PMCID: PMC8810482. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8810482/

298) Xie Y, Zhan S, Ge W, Tang P. The potential risks of C-C chemokine receptor 5-edited babies in bone development. Bone Res. 2019 Jan 29;7:4. doi 10.1038/s41413-019-0044-0. PMID: 30701110; PMCID: PMC6351561. Parenthesis are mine.

299) Paoli, Julia, “HIV Resistant Mutation,” Oct 2013, Scitable by Nature Education; https://www.nature.com/scitable/blog/viruses101/hiv_resistant_mutation/#:~:text=A%20genetic%20mutation%20known%20as,sit%20outside%20of%20the%20cell.

300) Entanglement of CCR5 and Alzheimer’s Disease; Aging Neurosci., 07 August 2019

Sec. Alzheimer’s Disease and Related Dementias; Li, Tianwen Li & Zhu, Jianhong Aug 2019; https://doi.org/10.3389/fnagi.2019.00209

(301) Venuti, Assunta; Pastori, Claudia; Lopalco, Lucia, “The Role of Natural Anti-bodies to CC Chemokine Receptor 5 in HIV infection.” Oct 2017; Frontiers in Immunology; Frontiers | The Role of Natural Antibodies to CC Chemokine Receptor 5 in HIV Infection (frontiersin.org)

(302) Lim JK, McDermott DH, Lisco A, Foster GA, Krysztof D, Follmann D, Stramer SL, Murphy PM. CCR5 deficiency is a risk factor for early clinical manifestations of West Nile virus infection but not for viral transmission. J Infect Dis. 2010 Jan 15;201(2):178-85. doi 10.1086/649426. PMID: 20025530; PMCID: PMC2934858. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2934858/

303) Zhou M, Greenhill S, Huang S, Silva TK, Sano Y, Wu S, Cai Y, Nagaoka Y, Sehgal M, Cai DJ, Lee YS, Fox K, Silva AJ. CCR5 is a suppressor for cortical plasticity and hippocampal learning and memory. Elife. 2016 Dec 20;5:e20985. doi: 10.7554/eLife.20985. PMID: 27996938; PMCID: PMC5213777.

304) Fortelny N, Pavlidis P, Overall CM. The path of no return–Truncated protein N-termini and current ignorance of their genesis. Proteomics. 2015 Jul;15(14):2547-52. doi: 10.1002/pmic.201500043. Epub 2015 Jun 15. PMID: 26010509; PMCID: PMC4736679. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4736679/#:~:text=Protein%20truncation%20is%20a%20special,immediate%20consequence%20to%20the%20phenotype.

305) “Frameshift mutation”; Scitable by Nature Education, https://www.nature.com/scitable/definition/frameshift-mutation-frame-shift-mutation-frameshift-203/#:~:text=A%20frameshift%20mutation%20is%20a,way%20the%20sequence%20is%20read.

306) Lopalco L. CCR5: From Natural Resistance to a New Anti-HIV Strategy. Viruses. 2010 Feb;2(2):574-600. doi: 10.3390/v2020574. Epub 2010 Feb 5. PMID: 21994649; PMCID: PMC3185609. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3185609/

307) https://africa.si.edu/collection/conservation/protect-ivory/

308) https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/female-elephants-are-evolving-to-go-tuskless-but-may-be-killing-males-180978938/

309) https://www.npr.org/2021/10/22/1048336907/elephants-tuskless-ivory-poaching-africa#:~:text=Although%20tusklessness%20was%20once%20rare,half%20their%20daughters%20were%20tuskless.

310) https://cosmosmagazine.com/history/palaeontology/can-we-really-extract-ancient-dna-from-dinosaurs/#:~:text=What%20is%20ancient%20DNA%3F,between%20decades%20to%20millennia%20old.

311) Ivory poaching and the rapid evolution of tusklessness in African elephants, SHANE C. CAMPBELL-STATON, BRIAN J. ARNOLD, DOMINIQUE GONÇALVES, PETTER GRANLI, JOYCE POOLE, RYAN A. LONG, AND ROBERT M. PRINGLE; SCIENCE, Oct, 2021;

Vol 374, Issue 6566 pp. 483-487 DOI: 10.1126/science.abe7389; https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abe7389

312) National Geographic, Under poaching pressure, elephants are evolving to lose their tusks” ByDina Fine Maron, Nov, 2018

; https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/wildlife-watch-news-tuskless-elephants-behavior-change

313) BBC Science Focus, “More and more elephants are being born without tusks. A geneticist explains why.” JV Chamary, Nov, 2021; https://www.sciencefocus.com/news/has-ivory-poaching-triggered-the-evolution-of-tuskless-elephants

314) Graveyard of Extinct Elephants From 5 Million Years Ago Found in Florida

Published May 26, 2023 at 10:56 AM EDT https://www.newsweek.com/graveyard-extinct-elephants-discovered-florida-1802915#:~:text=Graveyard%20of%20Extinct%20Elephants%20From%205%20Million%20Years%20Ago%20Found%20in%20Florida,-Published%20May%2026&text=Paleontologists%20from%20the%20Florida%20Museum,to%205%20million%20years%20ago.

315) https://africa.si.edu/research/conservation/protect-ivory/#:~:text=It%20has%20been%20estimated%20that,one%20elephant%20every%2015%20minutes.

316) Elephants have evolved to be tuskless because of ivory poaching, a study finds

Oct, 20218 The Associated Press; https://www.npr.org/2021/10/22/1048336907/elephants-tuskless-ivory-poaching-africa#:~:text=with%20other%20elephants.-,But%20during%20episodes%20of%20intense%20ivory%20poaching%2C%20those%20big%20incisors,that%20will%20never%20develop%20tusks.  

317) Missing Lateral Incisors? Help Your Smile With Braces! By Appel Orthodontics, Mar, 2022 Orthodontic Technology & Treatment Options; https://appelortho.com/braces-mising-lateral-incisors

318) U.S. Customs and Border Protection; https://www.cbp.gov/frontline/fighting-ivory-trade#:~:text=Staggering%20black%20market%20prices%20in,wealth%2C%20poachers%20can%20be%20ruthless.

319) Nylonase: Move On, Nothing to See Here, Says Theistic Evolutionist; Ann Gauger, July 18, 2017, 1:22 AM https://evolutionnews.org/2017/07/nylonase-move-on-nothing-to-see-here-says-theistic-evolutionist/

320) The Nylonase Story: When Imagination and Facts Collide. Ann Gauger, May 4, 2017, 2:35 AM https://evolutionnews.org/2017/05/the-nylonase-story-when-imagination-and-facts-collide/

321)  Can mutations create new information? by Dr Robert W. Carter https://creation.com/mutations-new-information#

322) Structure and Catalytic Properties of Carboxylesterase Isozymes Involved in Metabolic Activation of Prodrugs by Masakiyo Hosokawa; Laboratory of Drug Metabolism and Biopharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chiba Institute of Science, Shiomi-Cho, Choshi-City, Chiba 288-0025, Japan, Molecules 2008, 13(2), 412-431; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules13020412; Submission received: 14 December 2007 / Revised: 9 February 2008 / Accepted: 11 February 2008 / Published: 18 February 2008; https://www.mdpi.com/1420-3049/13/2/412

323) “Nylon, a Petroleum Polymer” American Oil and Gas Historical Society,  https://aoghs.org/products/petroleum-product-nylon-fiber/

324) https://bigthink.com/surprising-science/evolution-is-still-happening-beneficial-mutations-in-humans/

325) https://jov.arvojournals.org/article.aspx?articleid=2191517 ; 2010 Journal of Vision Study

326) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetrachromacy

327) https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/resources/2016-genes-and-lactose-intolerance#:~:text=Most%20people%20in%20the%20world,and%20some%20parts%20of%20Africa   

328) https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4586575/;

329) Healthline Tetrachromacy (“Super Vision”); https://www.healthline.com/health/tetrachromacy

330) Superhuman vision? Sharon Peralta, medically reviewed by Sonia Kelley, OD, MS; https://www.allaboutvision.com/conditions/retina/tetrachromacy/

331) Ask a Neuroscientist: Human Tetrachromacy, December 16, 2013 Samata Katta; https://www.neuwritewest.org/blog/ask-a-neuro-tetrachromacy

332) Bowmaker, J. K. (1998). “Evolution of colour vision in vertebrates”. Eye. 12 (3b): 541–547. doi:10.1038/eye.1998.143. PMID 9775215. S2CID 12851209.

333) “Tetrachromacy: the mysterious case of extra-ordinary” by Gabriele Jordan and John Mollon; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cobeha.2019.08.002 ; 2352-1546, 2019 Published by Elsevier Ltd. ScienceDirect; https://vision.psychol.cam.ac.uk/jdmollon/papers/JordanMollon2019Tetrachromacy.pdf

334) Gerald H. Jacobs, in Encyclopedia of Biological Chemistry (Third Edition), 2021; https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/opn1lw#:~:text=The%20gene%20OPN1SW%20that%20encodes,consisting%20of%20350%20amino%20acids.

335) Shichida Y, Matsuyama T. Evolution of opsins and phototransduction. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 2009 Oct 12;364(1531):2881-95. doi: 10.1098/rstb.2009.0051. PMID: 19720651; PMCID: PMC2781858. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2781858/

336) Paleontology and Primate Evolution, Editor Kieran McNulty, Nature Education, https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/paleontology-and-primate-evolution-135304123/#:~:text=Primates%20first%20appeared%20in%20the,back%20as%20the%20Cretaceous%20Period.

337) Britannica, Colour blindness, medical condition; https://www.britannica.com/science/color-blindness#ref1224813

338) “Physicists track biochemical reactions in Darwin’s ‘warm little ponds’” Isabelle Dumé, Aug 2023, physics world, https://physicsworld.com/a/physicists-track-biochemical-reactions-in-darwins-warm-little-ponds/

339) “Early Life on Earth- Animal origins” Smithsonian https://naturalhistory.si.edu/education/teaching-resources/life-science/early-life-earth-animal-origins

340) “Units of measurement for Microbes” LibreTexts Biology, https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Boundless)/03%3A_Microscopy/3.01%3A_Looking_at_Microbes/3.1B%3A_Units_of_Measurement_for_Microbes#:~:text=Microbes%20are%20broadly%20defined%20as,in%20base%20pairs%20of%20DNA.

341)